Supplements

← vista completa

Published on September 16, 2016 | http://doi.org/10.5867/medwave.2016.6530

Image diagnosis of aortic valve disease: an update

Actualización en el diagnóstico por imagen de la patología valvular aórtica

Miquel Gómez

Abstract

Aortic valve disease is the most common acquired valvular disease and most often requiring surgical valve replacement in our environment. In this chapter the latest scientific contributions in the field of cardiac imaging in this disease (echocardiography, magnetic resonance imaging and cardiac computed tomography) are reviewed. Some of them have aroused large and lively debates in forums in recent years. These contributions have forced us to rethink some diagnostic criteria, and the management of this disease as well.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Esta licencia permite el uso, distribución y reproducción del artículo en cualquier medio, siempre y cuando se otorgue el crédito correspondiente al autor del artículo y al medio en que se publica, en este caso, Medwave.

Authors

Miquel Gómez

mgomezpe@parcdesalutmar.cat

Servicio de Cardiología, Hospital del Mar-Parc de Salut Mar, Paseo Marítimo 25, Barcelona, España

Figures

Article has no figures.

Forum

No messages

History

Citation Gómez M. Image diagnosis of aortic valve disease: an update. Medwave 2016;16(Suppl4):e6530 doi: 10.5867/medwave.2016.6530

Submission date 01/01/1970

Acceptance date 01/01/1970

Publication date 16/09/2016

Index

Metrics

Not available at the moment.

Notes

Keywords

aortic stenosis, echocardiography, magnetic resonance imaging, computerized tomography

References

  1. Otto CM. Calcific aortic stenosis--time to look more closely at the valve. N Engl J Med. 2008 Sep 25;359(13):1395-8. | CrossRef | PubMed
  2. Zoghbi WA, Enriquez-Sarano M, Foster E, Grayburn PA, Kraft CD, Levine RA, et al. Recommendations for evaluation of the severity of native valvular regurgitation with two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2003 Jul;16(7):777-802. | PubMed
  3. Michelena HI, Margaryan E, Miller FA, Eleid M, Maalouf J, Suri R, et al. Inconsistent echocardiographic grading of aortic stenosis: is the left ventricular outflow tract important? Heart. 2013 Jul;99(13):921-31. | CrossRef | PubMed
  4. Pérez de Isla L, Zamorano J, Pérez de la Yglesia R, Cioccarelli S, Almería C, Rodrigo JL, et al. Utilidad de la ecocardiografía tridimensional en la cuantificación del área valvular aórtica. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2008;61(5):494-500. | Link
  5. Rogge BP, Gerdts E, Cramariuc D, Bahlmann E, Jander N, Gohlke-Bärwolf C, et al. Impact of obesity and nonobesity on grading the severity of aortic valve stenosis. Am J Cardiol. 2014 May 1;113(9):1532-5. | CrossRef | PubMed
  6. Hachicha Z, Dumesnil JG, Bogaty P, Pibarot P. Paradoxical low-flow, low-gradient severe aortic stenosis despite preserved ejection fraction is associated with higher afterload and reduced survival. Circulation. 2007 Jun 5;115(22):2856-64. | PubMed
  7. Jander N, Minners J, Holme I, Gerdts E, Boman K, Brudi P, et al. Outcome of patients with low-gradient "severe" aortic stenosis and preserved ejection fraction. Circulation. 2011 Mar 1;123(8):887-95. | CrossRef | PubMed
  8. González-Cánovas C, Muñoz-Esparza C, Oliva MJ, González-Carrillo J, Lopez-Cuenca A, Saura D, et al. Estenosis aórtica grave con bajo gradiente y fracción de eyección normal. ¿una cuestión de mala clasificación? Rev Esp Cardiol. 2013;66(4):255–260. | Link
  9. Adda J, Mielot C, Giorgi R, Cransac F, Zirphile X, Donal E, et al. Low-flow, low-gradient severe aortic stenosis despite normal ejection fraction is associated with severe left ventricular dysfunction as assessed by speckle-tracking echocardiography: a multicenter study. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2012 Jan;5(1):27-35. | CrossRef | PubMed
  10. García-Orta R, Mahía-Casado P, Gómez de Diego JJ, Barba-Cosials J, Rodriguez-Palomares JF, Aguadé-Bruix S, et al. Update on cardiac imaging techniques 2013. Rev Esp Cardiol (Engl Ed). 2014 Feb;67(2):127-34. | CrossRef | PubMed
  11. Tribouilloy C, Rusinaru D, Maréchaux S, Castel AL, Debry N, Maizel J, et al. Low-gradient, low-flow severe aortic stenosis with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction: characteristics, outcome, and implications for surgery. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015 Jan 6;65(1):55-66. | CrossRef | PubMed
  12. Vahanian A, Alfieri O, Andreotti F, Antunes MJ, Barón-Esquivias G, Baumgartner H, et al. Guidelines on the management of valvular heart disease (version 2012). Eur Heart J. 2012 Oct;33(19):2451-96. | CrossRef | PubMed
  13. Gomez M, Roqueta C, Molina L, Cladellas M, Ble M, Comin-Colet J, et al. Clinical value of ankle-brachial index in asymptomatic aorticstenosis patients. J Heart Valve Dis. 2015 Mar;24(2):164-8. | PubMed
  14. Mutlak D, Aronson D, Carasso S, Lessick J, Reisner SA, Agmon Y. Frequency, determinants and outcome of pulmonary hypertension in patients with aortic valve stenosis. Am J Med Sci. 2012 May;343(5):397-401. | CrossRef | PubMed
  15. Cladellas M, Bruguera J, Comín J, Vila J, de Jaime E, Martí J, et al. Is pre-operative anaemia a risk marker for in-hospital mortality and morbidity after valve replacement? Eur Heart J. 2006 May;27(9):1093-9. | PubMed
  16. Gómez M, Ble M, Cladellas M, Molina L, Comín-Colet J, et al. Effect of correction of anemia on echocardiographic and clinical parameters in patients with aortic stenosis involving a three-cuspid aortic valve and normal left ventricular ejection fraction. Am J Cardiol. 2015 Jul 15;116(2):270-4. | CrossRef | PubMed
  17. Farré N, Gómez M, Molina L, Cladellas M, Blé M, Roqueta C, et al. Prognostic value of NT-proBNP and an adapted monin score in patients with asymptomatic aortic stenosis. Rev Esp Cardiol (Engl Ed). 2014 Jan;67(1):52-7. | CrossRef | PubMed
  18. Panayotova R, Macnab A, Waterworth PD. A pilot project of familial screening in patients with bicuspid aortic valve disease. J Heart Valve Dis. 2013 Mar;22(2):150-5. | PubMed
  19. Barone-Rochette G, Piérard S, Seldrum S, de Meester de Ravenstein C, Melchior J, Maes F, et al. Aortic valve area, stroke volume, left ventricular hypertrophy, remodeling, and fibrosis in aortic stenosis assessed by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging: comparison between high and low gradient and normal and low flow aortic stenosis. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2013 Nov;6(6):1009-17. | CrossRef | PubMed
  20. Ewe SH, Delgado V, van der Geest R, Westenberg JJ, Haeck ML, Witkowski TG, Auger D, et al. Accuracy of three-dimensional versus two-dimensional echocardiography for quantification of aortic regurgitation and validation by three-dimensional three-directional velocity-encoded magnetic resonance imaging. Am J Cardiol. 2013 Aug 15;112(4):560-6. | CrossRef | PubMed
  21. Task Force Members, Montalescot G, Sechtem U, Achenbach S, Andreotti F, Arden C, et al. 2013 ESC guidelines on the management of stable coronary artery disease: the Task Force on the management of stable coronary artery disease of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2013 Oct;34(38):2949-3003. | CrossRef | PubMed
  22. Saikrishnan N, Kumar G, Sawaya FJ, Lerakis S, Yoganathan AP. Accurate assessment of aortic stenosis: a review of diagnostic modalities and hemodynamics. Circulation. 2014 Jan 14;129(2):244-53. | CrossRef | PubMed
  23. Samim M, Stella PR, Agostoni P, Kluin J, Ramjankhan F, Budde RP, et al. Automated 3D analysis of pre-procedural MDCT to predict annulus plane angulation and C-arm positioning: benefit on procedural outcome in patients referred for TAVR. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2013 Feb;6(2):238-48. | CrossRef | PubMed
  24. Kaul S, Tei C, Hopkins JM, Shah PM. Assessment of right ventricular function using two-dimensional echocardiography. Am Heart J. 1984 Mar;107(3):526-31. | PubMed
  25. Karatasakis GT, Karagounis LA, Kalyvas PA, Manginas A, Athanassopoulos GD, Aggelakas SA, et al. Prognostic significance of echocardiographically estimated right ventricular shortening in advanced heart failure. Am J Cardiol. 1998 Aug 1;82(3):329-34. | PubMed
  26. Kjaergaard J, Akkan D, Iversen KK, Køber L, Torp-Pedersen C, Hassager C. Right ventricular dysfunction as an independent predictor of short- and long-term mortality in patients with heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail. 2007 Jun-Jul;9(6-7):610-6. | PubMed
  27. Rudski LG, Lai WW, Afilalo J, Hua L, Handschumacher MD, Chandrasekaran K, et al. Guidelines for the echocardiographic assessment of the right heart in adults: a report from the American Society of Echocardiography endorsed by the European Association of Echocardiography, a registered branch of the European Society of Cardiology, and the Canadian Society of Echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2010 Jul;23(7):685-713; quiz 786-8. | CrossRef | PubMed
  28. Grison A, Maschietto N, Reffo E, Stellin G, Padalino M, Vida V, et al. Three-dimensional echocardiographic evaluation of right ventricular volume and function in pediatric patients: validation of the technique. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2007 Aug;20(8):921-9. | PubMed
  29. Jenkins C, Chan J, Bricknell K, Strudwick M, Marwick TH. Reproducibility of right ventricular volumes and ejection fraction using real-time three-dimensional echocardiography: comparison with cardiac MRI. Chest. 2007 Jun;131(6):1844-51. | PubMed
  30. Smith BC, Dobson G, Dawson D, Charalampopoulos A, Grapsa J, Nihoyannopoulos P. Three-dimensional speckle tracking of the right ventricle: toward optimal quantification of right ventricular dysfunction in pulmonary hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014 Jul 8;64(1):41- | CrossRef | PubMed
  31. Goetschalckx K, Rademakers F, Bogaert J. Right ventricular function by MRI. Curr Opin Cardiol. 2010 Sep;25(5):451-5. | CrossRef | PubMed
  32. Pavlicek M, Wahl A, Rutz T, de Marchi SF, Hille R, Wustmann K, et al. Right ventricular systolic function assessment: rank of echocardiographic methods vs. cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. Eur J Echocardiogr. 2011 Nov;12(11):871-80. | CrossRef | PubMed
  33. Nagueh SF, Kopelen HA, Zoghbi WA. Relation of mean right atrial pressure to echocardiographic and Doppler parameters of right atrial and right ventricular function. Circulation. 1996 Mar 15;93(6):1160-9. | PubMed
  34. Berger M, Haimowitz A, Van Tosh A, Berdoff RL, Goldberg E. Quantitative assessment of pulmonary hypertension in patients with tricuspid regurgitation using continuous wave Doppler ultrasound. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1985 Aug;6(2):359-65. | PubMed
  35. Lafitte S, Pillois X, Reant P, Picard F, Arsac F, Dijos M, et al. Estimation of pulmonary pressures and diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension by Doppler echocardiography: a retrospective comparison of routine echocardiography and invasive hemodynamics. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2013 May;26(5):457-63. | CrossRef | PubMed
  36. Diaz RA, Nihoyannopoulos P, Athanassopoulos G, Oakley CM. Usefulness of echocardiography to differentiate dilated cardiomyopathy from coronary-induced congestive heart failure. Am J Cardiol. 1991 Nov 1;68(11):1224-7. | PubMed
  37. Díaz RA, Nihoyannopoulos P, Oakley CM. [Differential diagnosis of congestive cardiomyopathy and myocardial ischemia: two-dimensional echocardiography has a limited value]. Rev Med Chil. 1991 Jul;119(7):772-7. | PubMed
  38. Díaz RA, Nihoyannopoulos P, Oakley CM. [Valvular insufficiency in dilated cardiomyopathy diagnosed by color Doppler echocardiography]. Rev Med Chil. 1989 Nov;117(11):1232-5. | PubMed
  39. Gheorghiade M, Bonow RO. Chronic heart failure in the United States: a manifestation of coronary artery disease. Circulation. 1998 Jan 27;97(3):282-9. | PubMed
  40. Fox KF, Cowie MR, Wood DA, Coats AJ, Gibbs JS, Underwood SR, et al. Coronary artery disease as the cause of incident heart failure in the population. Eur Heart J. 2001 Feb;22(3):228-36. | PubMed
  41. Raftery EB, Banks DC, Oram S. Occlusive disease of the coronary arteries presenting as primary congestive cardiomyopathy. Lancet. 1969 Nov 29;2(7631):1146-50. | PubMed
  42. Felker GM, Shaw LK, O'Connor CM. A standardized definition of ischemic cardiomyopathy for use in clinical research. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002 Jan 16;39(2):210-8. | PubMed
  43. Budoff MJ, Achenbach S, Blumenthal RS, Carr JJ, Goldin JG, Greenland P, et al. Assessment of coronary artery disease by cardiac computed tomography: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Committee on Cardiovascular Imaging and Intervention, Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention, and Committee on Cardiac Imaging, Council on Clinical Cardiology. Circulation. 2006 Oct 17;114(16):1761-91. | PubMed
  44. Franciosa JA, Wilen M, Ziesche S, Cohn JN. Survival in men with severe chronic left ventricular failure due to either coronary heart disease or idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol. 1983 Mar 1;51(5):831-6. | PubMed
  45. Fuster V, Gersh BJ, Giuliani ER, Tajik AJ, Brandenburg RO, Frye RL. The natural history of idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol. 1981 Mar;47(3):525-31. | PubMed
  46. Mowatt G, Cook JA, Hillis GS, Walker S, Fraser C, Jia X, Waugh N. 64-Slice computed tomography angiography in the diagnosis and assessment of coronary artery disease: systematic review and meta-analysis. Heart. 2008 Nov;94(11):1386-93. | CrossRef | PubMed
  47. Hunt SA. ACC/AHA 2005 guideline update for the diagnosis and management of chronic heart failure in the adult: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to update the 2001 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Mana- gement of Heart Failure). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005 Sep 20;46(6):e1-82. | CrossRef | PubMed
  48. Ghostine S, Caussin C, Habis M, Habib Y, Clément C, Sigal-Cinqualbre A, et al. Non-invasive diagnosis of ischaemic heart failure using 64-slice computed tomography. Eur Heart J. 2008 Sep;29(17):2133-40. | CrossRef | PubMed
  49. Camici PG, Prasad SK, Rimoldi OE. Stunning, hibernation, and assessment of myocardial viability. Circulation. 2008 Jan 1;117(1):103-14. | CrossRef | PubMed
  50. Gerber BL, Rousseau MF, Ahn SA, le Polain de Waroux JB, Pouleur AC, Phlips T, et al. Prognostic value of myocardial viability by delayed-enhanced magnetic resonance in patients with coronary artery disease and low ejection fraction: impact of revascularization therapy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012 Feb 28;59(9):825-35. | CrossRef | PubMed
  51. Kwon DH, Halley CM, Carrigan TP, Zysek V, Popovic ZB, Setser R, et al. Extent of left ventricular scar predicts outcomes in ischemic cardiomyopathy patients with significantly reduced systolic function: a delayed hyperenhancement cardiac magnetic resonance study. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2009 Jan;2(1):34-44. | CrossRef | PubMed
  52. Cheong BY, Muthupillai R, Wilson JM, Sung A, Huber S, Amin S, et al. Prognostic significance of delayed-enhancement magnetic resonance imaging: survival of 857 patients with and without left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation. 2009 Nov 24;120(21):2069-76. | CrossRef | PubMed
  53. Falk RH. Diagnosis and management of the cardiac amyloidoses. Circulation. 2005 Sep 27;112(13):2047-60. | PubMed
  54. Vogelsberg H, Mahrholdt H, Deluigi CC, Yilmaz A, Kispert EM, Greulich S, et al. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in clinically suspected cardiac amyloidosis: noninvasive imaging compared to endomyocardial biopsy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008 Mar 11;51(10):1022-30. | CrossRef | PubMed
  55. Maceira AM, Joshi J, Prasad SK, Moon JC, Perugini E, Harding I, et al. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in cardiac amyloidosis. Circulation. 2005 Jan 18;111(2):186-93 | PubMed
  56. Austin BA, Tang WH, Rodriguez ER, Tan C, Flamm SD, Taylor DO, et al. Delayed hyper-enhancement magnetic resonance imaging provides incremental diagnostic and prognostic utility in suspected cardiac amyloidosis. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2009 Dec;2(12):1369-77. | CrossRef | PubMed
  57. Syed IS, Glockner JF, Feng D, Araoz PA, Martinez MW, Edwards WD, et al. Role of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in the detection of cardiac amyloidosis. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2010 Feb;3(2):155-64. | CrossRef | PubMed
  58. Sliwa K, Damasceno A, Mayosi BM. Epidemiology and etiology of cardiomyopathy in Africa. Circulation. 2005 Dec 6;112(23):3577-83. | PubMed
  59. Denfield SW, Webber SA. Restrictive cardiomyopathy in childhood. Heart Fail Clin. 2010 Oct;6(4):445-52, viii. | CrossRef | PubMed
  60. Verma VK, Zafar KS. Tropical endomyocardial fibrosis: an overview. Int J Res Med Sci. 2014 Nov;2(4):1267-1277 | Link
  61. Rochitte CE, Tassi EM, Shiozaki AA. The emerging role of MRI in the diagnosis and management of cardiomyopathies. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2006 Feb;8(1):44-52. | PubMed
  62. Estornell J, López MP, Dicenta F, Igual B, Martínez V, Sonlleva A. [Usefulness of magnetic resonance imaging in the assessment of endomyocardial disease]. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2003 Mar;56(3):321-4. | PubMed
  63. Cury RC, Abbara S, Sandoval LJ, Houser S, Brady TJ, Palacios IF. Images in cardiovascular medicine. Visualization of endomyocardial fibrosis by delayed-enhancement magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation. 2005 Mar 8;111(9):e115-7. | PubMed
  64. Diaz RA, Aranguiz E, Pedemonte O. Complementary roles of transthoracic two-dimensional color Doppler imaging and myocardial contrast echocardiography in diagnosis of endomyocardial fibrosis. Echocardiography. 2009 May;26(5):589-92. | PubMed
  65. Ashrafian H, Watkins H. Reviews of translational medicine and genomics in cardiovascular disease: new disease taxonomy and therapeutic implications cardiomyopathies: therapeutics based on molecular phenotype. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007 Mar 27;49(12):1251-64. | PubMed
  66. Frey N, Luedde M, Katus HA. Mechanisms of disease: hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2011 Oct 25;9(2):91-100. | CrossRef | PubMed
  67. Melacini P, Basso C, Angelini A, Calore C, Bobbo F, Tokajuk B, et al. Clinicopathological profiles of progressive heart failure in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Eur Heart J. 2010 Sep;31(17):2111-23. | CrossRef | PubMed
  68. Shapiro LM, McKenna WJ. Distribution of left ventricular hypertrophy in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a two-dimensional echocardiographic study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1983 Sep;2(3):437-44. | PubMed
  69. Maron MS, Olivotto I, Betocchi S, Casey SA, Lesser JR, Losi MA, et al. Effect of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction on clinical outcome in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med. 2003 Jan 23;348(4):295-303. | PubMed
  70. Maron BJ. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a systematic review. JAMA. 2002 Mar 13;287(10):1308-20. | PubMed
  71. Spirito P, Autore C. Management of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. BMJ. 2006 May 27;332(7552):1251-5. | PubMed
  72. Rowin E.J., Maron B.J., Olivotto I., et al; Progressive heart failure is uncommon in patients with nonobstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2013; 128:A14979
  73. Maron MS, Maron BJ, Harrigan C, Buros J, Gibson CM, Olivotto I, et al. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy phenotype revisited after 50 years with cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009 Jul 14;54(3):220-8. | CrossRef | PubMed
  74. Maron MS, Rowin EJ, Lin D, Appelbaum E, Chan RH, Gibson CM, et al. Prevalence and clinical profile of myocardial crypts in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2012 Jul;5(4):441-7. | CrossRef | PubMed
  75. Desai MY, Ommen SR, McKenna WJ, Lever HM, Elliott PM. Imaging phenotype versus genotype in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2011 Mar;4(2):156-68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.110.957936 | PubMed
  76. Kwon DH, Smedira NG, Rodriguez ER, Tan C, Setser R, Thamilarasan M, et al. Cardiac magnetic resonance detection of myocardial scarring in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: correlation with histopathology and prevalence of ventricular tachycardia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009 Jul 14;54(3):242-9. | CrossRef | PubMed
  77. Moravsky G, Ofek E, Rakowski H, Butany J, Williams L, Ralph-Edwards A, et al. Myocardial fibrosis in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: accurate reflection of histopathological findings by CMR. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2013 May;6(5):587-96. | CrossRef | PubMed
  78. Moon JC, McKenna WJ, McCrohon JA, Elliott PM, Smith GC, Pennell DJ. Toward clinical risk assessment in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with gadolinium cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003 May 7;41(9):1561-7. | PubMed
  79. O'Hanlon R, Grasso A, Roughton M, Moon JC, Clark S, Wage R, et al. Prognostic significance of myocardial fibrosis in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010 Sep 7;56(11):867-74. | CrossRef | PubMed
  80. Elliott P, McKenna WJ. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Lancet. 2004 Jun 5;363(9424):1881-91. | PubMed
  81. Dec GW, Fuster V. Idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med. 1994 Dec 8;331(23):1564-75. | PubMed
  82. Raftery EB, Banks DC, Oram S. Occlusive disease of the coronary arteries presenting as primary congestive cardiomyopathy. Lancet. 1969 Nov 29;2(7631):1146-50. | PubMed
  83. Felker GM, Shaw LK, O'Connor CM. A standardized definition of ischemic cardiomyopathy for use in clinical research. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002 Jan 16;39(2):210-8. | PubMed
  84. Hunold P, Schlosser T, Vogt FM, Eggebrecht H, Schmermund A, Bruder O, et al. Myocardial late enhancement in contrast-enhanced cardiac MRI: distinction between infarction scar and non-infarction-related disease. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2005 May;184(5):1420-6. | PubMed
  85. Bluemke DA. MRI of nonischemic cardiomyopathy. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2010 Oct;195(4):935-40. | CrossRef | PubMed
  86. Leyva F, Taylor RJ, Foley PW, Umar F, Mulligan LJ, Patel K, et al. Left ventricular midwall fibrosis as a predictor of mortality and morbidity after cardiac resynchronization therapy in patients with nonischemic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012 Oct 23;60(17):1659-67. | CrossRef | PubMed
  87. Gulati A, Jabbour A, Ismail TF, Guha K, Khwaja J, Raza S, et al. Association of fibrosis with mortality and sudden cardiac death in patients with nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy. JAMA. 2013 Mar 6;309(9):896-908. | CrossRef | PubMed
  88. Kuruvilla S, Adenaw N, Katwal AB, Lipinski MJ, Kramer CM, Salerno M. Late gadolinium enhancement on cardiac magnetic resonance predicts adverse cardiovascular outcomes in nonischemic cardiomyopathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2014 Mar;7(2):250-8. | CrossRef | PubMed
  89. Pöyhönen P, Kivistö S, Holmström M, Hänninen H. Quantifying late gadolinium enhancement on CMR provides additional prognostic information in early risk-stratification of nonischemic cardiomyopathy: a cohort study. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2014 Aug 27;14:110. | CrossRef | PubMed
  90. Masci PG, Schuurman R, Barison A, Ripoli A, Coceani M, Chiappino S, et al. Response to letters regarding article, "Myocardial fibrosis as a key determinant of left ventricular remodeling in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy: a contrast-enhanced cardiovascular magnetic study". Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2013 Nov;6(6):e79. | CrossRef | PubMed
  91. Maron BJ, Towbin JA, Thiene G, Antzelevitch C, Corrado D, Arnett D, et al. Contemporary definitions and classification of the cardiomyopathies: an American Heart Association Scientific Statement from the Council on Clinical Cardiology, Heart Failure and Transplantation Committee; Quality of Care and Outcomes Research and Functional Genomics and Translational Biology Interdisciplinary Working Groups; and Councilon Epidemiology and Prevention. Circulation. 2006 Apr 11;113(14):1807-16. | PubMed
  92. Engberding R, Bender F. Identification of a rare congenital anomaly of the myocardium by two-dimensional echocardiography: persistence of isolated myocardial sinusoids. Am J Cardiol. 1984 Jun 1;53(11):1733-4. | PubMed
  93. Richardson P, McKenna W, Bristow M, Maisch B, Mautner B, O'Connell J, et al. Report of the 1995 World Health Organization/International Society and Federation of Cardiology Task Force on the Definition and Classification of cardiomyopathies. Circulation. 1996 Mar 1;93(5):841-2. | PubMed
  94. Jenni R, Oechslin E, Schneider J, Attenhofer Jost C, Kaufmann PA. Echocardiographic and pathoanatomical characteristics of isolated left ventricular non-compaction: a step towards classification as a distinct cardiomyopathy. Heart. 2001 Dec;86(6):666-71. | PubMed
  95. Jenni R, Oechslin EN, van der Loo B. Isolated ventricular non-compaction of the myocardium in adults. Heart. 2007 Jan;93(1):11-5. Epub 2006 May 2. Review. | PubMed
  96. Petersen SE, Selvanayagam JB, Wiesmann F, Robson MD, Francis JM, Anderson RH, Watkins H, et al. Left ventricular non-compaction: insights from cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005 Jul 5;46(1):101-5. | PubMed
  97. Chin TK, Perloff JK, Williams RG, Jue K, Mohrmann R. Isolated noncompaction of left ventricular myocardium. A study of eight cases. Circulation. 1990 Aug;82(2):507-13. | PubMed
  98. Daimon Y, Watanabe S, Takeda S, Hijikata Y, Komuro I. Two-layered appearance of noncompaction of the ventricular myocardium on magnetic resonance imaging. Circ J. 2002 Jun;66(6):619-21. | PubMed
  99. Thuny F, Jacquier A, Jop B, Giorgi R, Gaubert JY, Bartoli JM, et al. Assessment of left ventricular non-compaction in adults: side-by-side comparison of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging with echocardiography. Arch Cardiovasc Dis. 2010 Mar;103(3):150-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acvd.2010.01.002 | PubMed
  100. Dodd JD, Holmvang G, Hoffmann U, Ferencik M, Abbara S, Brady TJ, et al. Quantification of left ventricular noncompaction and trabecular delayed hyperenhancement with cardiac MRI: correlation with clinical severity. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2007 Oct;189(4):974-80. | PubMed
  101. Nucifora G, Aquaro GD, Pingitore A, Masci PG, Lombardi M. Myocardial fibrosis in isolated left ventricular non-compaction and its relation to disease severity. Eur J Heart Fail. 2011 Feb;13(2):170-6. | CrossRef | PubMed
  102. 102. Hulot JS, Jouven X, Empana JP, Frank R, Fontaine G. Natural history and risk stratification of arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 2004 Oct 5;110(14):1879-84. | PubMed
  103. Dalal D, Nasir K, Bomma C, Prakasa K, Tandri H, Piccini J, et al. Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia: a United States experience. Circulation. 2005 Dec 20;112(25):3823-32 | PubMed
  104. Corrado D, Basso C, Thiene G, McKenna WJ, Davies MJ, Fontaliran F, et al. Spectrum of clinicopathologic manifestations of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia: a multicenter study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997 Nov 15;30(6):1512-20. | PubMed
  105. Pinamonti B, Sinagra G, Salvi A, Di Lenarda A, Morgera T, Silvestri F, et al. Left ventricular involvement in right ventricular dysplasia. Am Heart J. 1992 Mar;123(3):711-24. | PubMed
  106. Thiene G, Corrado D, Nava A, Rossi L, Poletti A, Boffa GM, et al. Right ventricular cardiomyopathy: is there evidence of an inflammatory aetiology? Eur Heart J. 1991 Aug;12 Suppl D:22-5. | PubMed
  107. Basso C, Corrado D, Thiene G. Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy in athletes: diagnosis, management, and recommendations for sport activity. Cardiol Clin. 2007 Aug;25(3):415-22, vi. | PubMed
  108. Lemola K, Brunckhorst C, Helfenstein U, Oechslin E, Jenni R, Duru F. Predictors of adverse outcome in patients with arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy: long term experience of a tertiary care centre. Heart. 2005 Sep;91(9):1167-72. | PubMed
  109. Kullo IJ, Edwards WD, Seward JB. Right ventricular dysplasia: the Mayo Clinic experience. Mayo Clin Proc. 1995 Jun;70(6):541-8. | PubMed
  110. McKenna WJ, Thiene G, Nava A, Fontaliran F, Blomstrom-Lundqvist C, Fontaine G, et al. Diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. Task Force of the Working Group Myocardial and Pericardial Disease of the European Society of Cardiology and of the Scientific Council on Cardiomyopathies of the International Society and Federation of Cardiology. Br Heart J. 1994 Mar;71(3):215-8. | PubMed
  111. Marcus FI, McKenna WJ, Sherrill D, Basso C, Bauce B, Bluemke DA, et al. Diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia: proposed modification of the Task Force Criteria. Eur Heart J. 2010 Apr;31(7):806-14. | CrossRef | PubMed
  112. Quarta G, Elliott PM. Diagnostic criteria for arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Rev Esp Cardiol (Engl Ed). 2012 Jul;65(7):599-605. | CrossRef | PubMed
  113. Tandri H, Calkins H, Nasir K, Bomma C, Castillo E, Rutberg J, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging findings in patients meeting task force criteria for arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2003 May;14(5):476-82. | PubMed
  114. Tandri H, Saranathan M, Rodriguez ER, Martinez C, Bomma C, Nasir K, et al. Noninvasive detection of myocardial fibrosis in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy using delayed-enhancement magnetic resonance imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005 Jan 4;45(1):98-103. | PubMed
  115. Yoerger DM, Marcus F, Sherrill D, Calkins H, Towbin JA, Zareba W, et al. Echocardiographic findings in patients meeting task force criteria for arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia: new insights from the multidisciplinary study of right ventricular dysplasia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005 Mar 15;45(6):860-5. | PubMed
  116. Cruz FE, Havenith M, Brugada P, Atie J, Cheriex EC, Smeets JL, et al. Pathologic findings after sudden death in arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia. Am J Cardiovasc Pathol. 1990;3(4):329-32. | PubMed
  117. Díaz R, Silva D. [Cardiac magnetic resonance in arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia: report of two cases]. Rev Med Chil. 2014 Nov;142(11):1467-72. | CrossRef | PubMed